Trust, disinformation, and digital mediaPerceptions and expectations about news in a polarized environment

  1. Serrano-Puche, Javier 1
  2. Rodríguez-Salcedo, Natalia 1
  3. Martínez-Costa, Maria-Pilar 1
  1. 1 Universidad de Navarra
    info

    Universidad de Navarra

    Pamplona, España

    ROR https://ror.org/02rxc7m23

Revista:
El profesional de la información

ISSN: 1386-6710,  1699-2407

Año de publicación: 2023

Título del ejemplar: Disinformation and online media

Volumen: 32

Número: 5

Tipo: Artículo

DOI: 10.3145/EPI.2023.SEP.18 DIALNET GOOGLE SCHOLAR lock_openAcceso abierto editor

Otras publicaciones en: El profesional de la información

Objetivos de desarrollo sostenible

Proyectos relacionados

Medios nativos digitales en España: Tipologías, audiencias, construcción de la confianza y claves para la sostenibilidad periodística

34060

Resumen

La transformación que el entorno comunicativo ha experimentado en las últimas décadas implica un reto para los me-dios de comunicación en relación con sus públicos, pues la confianza es un activo sensible a los cambios sociales, econó-micos, culturales y tecnológicos. El objetivo de esta investigación es profundizar en los motivos y factores que influyen en la pérdida de confianza en los medios de los públicos que tradicionalmente confiaban más en las noticias (jóvenes y adultos de 25 a 54 años), examinando la relevancia que tiene la desinformación y la polarización en el descrédito de los medios. Para ello, se revisa el estado de la cuestión desde el punto de vista teórico y con los datos aportados, entre otros, por el Digital News Report y diversos estudios sobre la pérdida de confianza global en otras instituciones, entre los que destaca el Edelman Trust Barometer. En segundo lugar, se adopta una metodología cualitativa para indagar en las motivaciones y expectativas de la ciudadanía frente a los medios. En concreto, se realizaron tres grupos de discusión en diversas ciudades españolas. Para asegurar su representatividad, se consideró la diversidad sociodemográfica atendiendo, entre otros, a criterios de género, edad y nivel educativo. Entre los hallazgos, sobresale que uno de los principales motivos de desconfianza hacia los medios es la percepción de que las noticias están sesgadas por razones políticas o económicas. La pandemia del Covid-19, donde abundó la desinformación, ha influido en las actitudes hacia los medios. Una vez superada la pandemia, la confianza en los medios ha disminuido y los participantes buscan fuentes alternativas. No obstante, se advierten diferencias en las percepciones y hábitos de consumo en función de la edad y el nivel educativo. Finalmente, se constata que la desconfianza se extiende más allá del ecosistema de medios, afectando a todas las instituciones.

Referencias bibliográficas

  • Amoedo, Avelino; Moreno, Elsa; Negredo, Samuel; Kaufmann-Argueta, Jürg; Vara-Miguel, Alfonso (2023). Digital News Report España 2023. Pamplona: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Navarra. https://doi.org/10.15581/019.2023
  • Au, Cheuk-Hang; Ho, Kevin; Chiu, Dickson (2021). "The role of online misinformation and fake news in ideological polarization: barriers, catalysts, and implications". Information systems frontiers, v. 24, n. 2. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-021-10133-9
  • Baumgartner, Frank R.; Chaqués-Bonafont, Laura (2015). "All news is bad news: newspaper coverage of political parties in Spain". Political communication, v. 32, n. 2, pp. 268-291. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2014.919974
  • Bennett, W. Lance; Livingston, Steven (2018). "The disinformation order: disruptive communication and the decline of democratic institutions". European journal of communication, v. 33, n. 2, pp. 122-139. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323118760317
  • Bessi, Alessandro; Petroni, Fabio; Del-Vicario, Michela; Zollo, Fabiana; Anagnostopoulos, Aris; Scala, Antonio; Caldarelli, Guido; Quattrociocchi, Walter (2016). "Homophily and polarization in the age of misinformation". The European physical journal special topics, v. 225, pp. 2047-2059. https://doi.org/10.1140/epjst/e2015-50319-0
  • Bice, Sara; Brueckner, Martin; Pforr, Christof (2017). "Putting social license to operate on the map: a social, actuarial and political risk and licensing model (SAP Model)". Resources policy, v. 53, pp. 46-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2017.05.011
  • Carlson, Matt; Lewis, Seth C. (eds.). (2015). Boundaries of journalism: professionalism, practices and participation. London: Routledge. ISBN: 978 1 138020 67 2
  • Carlson, Matt; Robinson, Sue; Lewis, Seth C. (2021). News after Trump: journalism´s crisis of relevance in a changed media culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN: 978 0 197550 34 2
  • Casero-Ripollés, Andreu (2020). "Impact of Covid-19 on the media system. Communicative and democratic consequences of news consumption during the outbreak". Profesional de la información, v. 29, n. 2, e290223. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2020.mar.23
  • Chadwick, Andrew (2013). The hybrid media system: politics and power. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN: 978 0 190696 73 3
  • Coleman, Stephen (2012). "Believing the news: From sinking trust to atrophied efficacy". European journal of communication, v. 27, n. 1, pp. 35-45. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323112438806
  • Corbu, Nicoleta; Oprea, Denisa-Adriana; Frunzaru, Valeriu (2021). "Romanian adolescents, fake news, and the third-person effect: a cross-sectional study." Journal of children media, v. 16, n. 3, pp. 387-405. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2021.1992460
  • Dafonte-Gómez, Alberto; Míguez-González, María-Isabel; Martínez-Rolán, Xavier (2022). "Los fact-checkers iberoamericanos frente a la Covid-19. Análisis de actividad en Facebook". Observatorio (OBS*), v. 16, n. 1, pp. 160-182. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.35345.56168
  • Delli-Carpini, Michael X.; Keeter, Scott (1996). What Americans know about politics and why it matters. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN: 0 300 06256 7
  • Edelman (2018). 2018 Edelman Trust Barometer. Global report. https://www.edelman.com/sites/g/files/aatuss191/files/2018-10/2018_Edelman_Trust_Barometer_Global_Report_FEB.pdf
  • Edelman (2019a). 2019 Edelman Trust Barometer. The battle for truth. https://www.edelman.com/trust/2019-trust-barometer
  • Edelman (2019b). Research. 2019 Edelman Trust Barometer. https://www.edelman.com/trust/2019-trust-barometer
  • Edelman (2020a). Research. Edelman 2020 Trust Barometer. https://www.edelman.com/trust/2020-trust-barometer
  • Edelman (2020b). Global Report. Edelman Trust Barometer. Trust: Competence and ethics. https://www.edelman.com/trust/2020-trust-barometer
  • Edelman (2021a). Global Report. Edelman Trust Barometer. Declaring information bankruptcy. https://www.edelman.com/trust/2021-trust-barometer
  • Edelman (2021b). The Trust 10. Edelman Trust Barometer. https://www.edelman.com/sites/g/files/aatuss191/files/2021-01/2021%20Trust%20Top%2010.pdf
  • Edelman (2022). Edelman Trust Barometer. The cycle of distrust. https://www.edelman.com/trust/2022-trust-barometer
  • Edelman (2023). Edelman Trust Barometer. Navigating a polarized world. https://www.edelman.com/trust/2023/trust-barometer
  • Engelke, Katherine M.; Hase, Valerie; Wintterlin, Florian (2019). "On measuring trust and distrust in journalism: reflection of the status quo and suggestions for the road ahead". Journal of trust research, v. 9, n. 1, pp. 66-86. https://doi.org/10.1080/21515581.2019.1588741
  • Eurofound (2022). Fifth round of the Living, working and COVID-19 e-survey data: living in a new era of uncertainty. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2806/190361
  • Fawzi, Nayla; Steindl, Nina; Obermaier, Magdalena; Prochazka, Fabian; Arlt, Dorothee; Blöbaum, Bernd; Dohle, Marco; Engelke, Katherine M.; Hanitzsch, Thomas; Jackob, Nikolaus; Jakobs, Ilka; Klawier, Tilman; Post, Senja; Reinemann, Carsten; Schweiger, Wolfgang; Ziegele, Marc (2021). "Concepts, causes and consequences of trust in news media - a literature review and framework". Annals of the international communication association, v. 45, n. 2, pp. 154-174. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2021.1960181
  • Fletcher, Richard; Park, Sora (2017). "The impact of trust in the news media on online news consumption and participation". Digital journalism, v. 5, n. 10, pp. 1281-1299. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2017.1279979
  • Garusi, Diego; Splendore, Sergio (2023). "Advancing a qualitative turn in news media trust research". Sociology compass, v. 17, n. 4, e13075. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.13075
  • Gaziano, Cecilie; McGrath, Kristin (1986). "Measuring the concept of credibility". Journalism and mass communication quarterly, v. 63, n. 3, pp. 451-462. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769908606300301
  • Giddens, Anthony (1991). Modernity and self-identity: Self and society in the late modern age. Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN: 978 0 804719445
  • Gil De Zúñiga, Homero; Ardèvol-Abreu, Alberto; Diehl, Trevor; Gómez-Patiño, María; Liu, James H. (2019). "Trust in institutional actors across 22 countries. Examining political, science, and media trust around the world". Revista latina de comunicación social, v. 74, pp. 237-262. https://doi.org/10.4185/RLCS-2019-1329
  • Gunther, Albert C.; McLaughlin, Bryan; Gotlieb, Melissa R.; Wise, David (2017). "Who says what to whom: content versus source in the hostile media effect". International journal of public opinion research, v. 49, n. 3, pp. 363-383. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edw009
  • Hallin, Daniel C.; Mancini, Paolo (2004). Comparing media systems: three models of media and politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511790867
  • Hameleers, Michael; Brosius, Anna; De-Vreese, Claes H. (2022). "Whom to trust? Media exposure patterns of citizens with perceptions of misinformation and disinformation related to the news media". European journal of communication, v. 37, n. 3, pp. 237-268. https://doi.org/10.1177/02673231211072667
  • Han, Byung-Chul (2016). La sociedad de la transparencia. Barcelona: Herder. ISBN: 978 84 254 3252 1
  • Hanimann, Anina; Heimann, Andri; Hellmueller, Lea; Trilling, Damian (2023). "Believing in credibility measures: reviewing credibility measures in media research from 1951 to 2018". International journal of communication, v. 17, pp. 214-235. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/viewFile/18815/3992
  • Hanitzsch, Thomas; Van-Dalen, Arjen; Steindl, Nina (2018). "Caught in the nexus: A comparative and longitudinal analysis of public trust in the press". The international journal of press/politics, v. 23, n. 1, pp. 3-23. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161217740695
  • Hasebrink, Uwe; Domeyer, Hanna (2012). "Media repertoires as patterns of behaviour and as meaningful practices. A multimethod approach to media use in converging media environments". Participations. Journal of audience & reception studies, v. 9, n. 2, pp. 757-779. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Media-repertoires-as-patterns-of-behaviour-and-as-A-Hasebrink-Domeyer/f72eb59cbf8871955d73d7aa693f105361cafb75
  • Hawley, Katherine (2012). Trust: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN: 978 0 199697342
  • Hovland, Carl I.; Weiss, Walter (1951). "The influence of source credibility on communication effectiveness". The public opinion quarterly, v. 15, n. 4, pp. 635-650. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2745952
  • Humprecht, Edda; Esser, Frank; Van-Aelst, Peter (2020). "Resilience to online disinformation: a framework for cross-national comparative research". The international journal of press/politics, v. 25, n. 3, pp. 493-516. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161219900126
  • Jakobsson, Peter; Stiernstedt, Friedrik (2023). "Trust and the media: arguments for the (irr)elevance of a concept". Journalism studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2023.2169191
  • Khemani, Stuti (2020). An opportunity to build legitimacy and trust in public institutions in the time of COVID-19. World Bank research and policy brief, n. 32, May. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/355311588754029852/pdf/An-Opportunity-to-Build-Legitimacy-and-Trust-in-Public-Institutions-in-the-Time-of-COVID-19.pdf
  • Kiousis, Spiro (2001). "Public trust or mistrust? Perceptions of media credibility in the information age". Mass communication & society, v. 4, n. 4, pp. 381-403. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327825MCS0404_4
  • Kohring, Matthias; Matthes, Jörg (2007). "Trust in news media: development and validation of a multidimensional scale". Communication research, v. 34, n. 2, pp. 231-252. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650206298071
  • Lagarde, Christine (2018). "There´s a reason for the lack of trust in government and business: corruption". The Guardian, 4 May. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/may/04/lack-trust-government-business-corruption-christine-lagarde-imf
  • Lee, Tien-Tsung (2010). "Why they don´t trust the media: an examination of factors predicting trust". American behavioral scientist, v. 54, n. 1, pp. 8-21. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764210376308
  • Lucassen, Teun; Schraagen, Jean M. (2012). "Propensity to trust and the influence of source and medium cues in credibility evaluation". Journal of information science, v. 38, n. 6, pp. 566-577. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165551512459921
  • Luhmann, Niklas (1968). Vertrauen: ein Mechanismus der Reduktion Sozialer Komplexität. Stuttgart: UTB. ISBN: 978 3 825221850
  • Martínez-Bravo, Mónica; Sanz, Carlos (2023). Trust and accountability in times of pandemics. Documentos de trabajo n. 2306, Madrid: Banco de España. https://www.bde.es/f/webbde/SES/Secciones/Publicaciones/PublicacionesSeriadas/DocumentosTrabajo/23/Files/dt2306e.pdf
  • Martínez-Costa, María-Pilar; López-Pan, Fernando; Buslón, Nataly; Salaverría, Ramón (2022). "Nobody-fools-me perception: influence of age and education on overconfidence about spotting disinformation". Journalism practice. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2022.2135128
  • Martínez-Costa, María-Pilar; Serrano-Puche, Javier; Portilla, Idoia; Sánchez-Blanco, Cristina (2019). "Young adults´ interaction with online news and advertising". Comunicar, v. 59, pp. 19-28. https://doi.org/10.3916/C59-2019-02
  • Masip, Pere; Aran-Ramspott, Sue; Ruiz-Caballero, Carlos; Suau, Jaume; Almenar, Ester; Puertas-Graell, David (2020). "Consumo informativo y cobertura mediática durante el confinamiento por el Covid-19: sobreinformación, sesgo ideológico y sensacionalismo". Profesional de la información, v. 29, n. 3, e290312. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2020.may.12
  • Masip, Pere; Suau, Jaume; Ruiz-Caballero, Carlos (2020). "Percepciones sobre medios de comunicación y desinformación: ideología y polarización en el sistema mediático espaí±ol". Profesional de la información, v. 29, n. 5, e290527. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2020.sep.27
  • McNamara, Jim (2016). Organizational listening. The missing essential in public communication. New York: Peter Lang Verlag. https://doi.org/10.3726/978-1-4539-1739-8
  • Medina, Mercedes; Etayo-Pérez, Cristina; Serrano-Puche, Javier (2023). "Categorías de confianza para los informativos televisivos e indicadores para su medición: percepciones de grupos de interés en Alemania, Espaí±a e Italia". Revista mediterránea de comunicación, v. 14, n. 1, pp. 307-324. https://www.doi.org/10.14198/MEDCOM.23416
  • Meyer, Philip (1988). "Defining and measuring credibility of newspapers: developing an index". Journalism & mass communication quarterly, v. 65, n. 3, pp. 567-574. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769908806500301
  • Mora, Juan-Manuel (2020). El valor de la reputación. Pamplona: Eunsa. ISBN: 978 84 313 3461 1
  • Moran, Rachel E.; Nechushtai, Efrad (2022). "Before reception: trust in the news as infrastructure". Journalism, v. 24, n. 3, pp. 457-474. https://doi.org/10.1177/14648849211048961
  • Moreno-Moreno, Elsa; Sanjurjo-San-Martín, Elena-Luisa (2020). "Consumo selectivo de las marcas periodísticas en Espaí±a: confianza, orientación política y grado de consumo digital". Profesional de la información, v. 29, n. 5, e290524. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2020.sep.24
  • Morrison, John (2014). The social license: how to keep your organization legitimate. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN: 978 1 137370716
  • Narbona, Juan; Pujol, Jordi; Gregory, Anne (2020). "The fragile tenets of trust". Church, communication and culture, v. 5, n. 3, pp. 293-297. https://doi.org/10.1080/23753234.2020.1825975
  • Newman, Nic; Fletcher, Richard; Robertson, Craig T.; Eddy, Kirsten; Nielsen, Rasmus-Kleis (2022). Digital news report. Oxford: Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2022-06/Digital_News-Report_2022.pdf
  • Otto, Kim; Köhlerr, Andreas (eds.) (2018). Trust in media and journalism: Empirical perspectives on ethics, norms, impacts and populism in Europe. Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20765-6
  • Pérez-Escoda, Ana; Pedrero-Esteban, Luis-Miguel (2021). "Retos del periodismo frente a las redes sociales, las fake news y la desconfianza de la generación Z". Revista latina de comunicación social, v. 79, pp. 67-85. https://doi.org/10.4185/RLCS-2021-1519
  • Pérez-Latre, Francisco-Javier (2022). Crisis de confianza (2007-2022). El descrédito de los medios. Pamplona: Eunsa. ISBN: 978 84 313 3792 6
  • Perry, Jonathan (2021). Trust in public institutions: trends and implications for economic security. Policy brief n. 108. New York: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2021/08/PB_108.pdf
  • Pew Research Center (2022). Trust in government: 1958-2022. Washington: Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2022/06/06/public-trust-in-government-1958-2022
  • Picard, Robert G. (2018). "The economics of journalism and news provision". In: Vos, Tim P. (ed.). Journalism. Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 281-296. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501500084-014
  • Prochazka, Fabian; Schweiger, Wolfgang (2019). "How to measure generalized trust in news media? An adaptation and test of scales". Communication methods and measures, v. 13, n. 1, pp. 26-42. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2018.1506021
  • Rao, Ashwin; Morstatter, Fred; Lerman, Kristina (2022). "Partisan asymmetries in exposure to misinformation". Scientific reports, v. 12, n. 15671. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-19837-7
  • Rizzi, Andrea (2023). "No es solo Brasil. La erosión global de la democracia avanza". El País, 15 de enero, pp. 2-3. https://elpais.com/internacional/2023-01-15/no-es-solo-brasil-la-erosion-global-de-la-democracia-avanza.html
  • Rodero, Emma (2020). "Radio: the medium that best copes in crises. Listening habits, consumption, and perception of radio listeners during the lockdown by the Covid-19". Profesional de la información, v. 29, n. 3, e290306. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2020.may.06
  • Rodríguez-Virgili, Jordi; Portilla-Manjón, Idoia; Sierra-Iso, Aurken (2022). "Cuarenta años de polarización ideológica en España". Revista empresa y humanismo, v. 25, n. 2, pp. 75-103. https://doi.org/10.15581/015.XXV.2.75-103
  • Rodríguez-Virgili, Jordi; Sierra, Aurken; Serrano-Puche, Javier (2022). "Percepciones sobre las funciones del periodismo en España". En: Libro de resúmenes VIII congreso Internacional de la AE-IC "˜Comunicación y ciudad conectada´, p. 173. Asociación Espaí±ola de Investigación de la Comunicación.
  • Rosanvallon, Pierre (2008). Counter-democracy: politics in an age of distrust. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511755835
  • Roses, Sergio (2012). "Análisis de indicadores de la confianza de los ciudadanos españoles en los medios en 2010". En: Comunicación y Riesgo: III Congreso Internacional de la Asociación Espaí±ola de Investigación de la Comunicación (AE-IC). Tarragona: Universitat Rovira i Virgili.
  • Roses, Sergio; Farias-Batlle, Pedro (2012). "Credibilidad de los medios: un análisis bivariado de las opiniones de los espaí±oles". Revista mediterránea de comunicación, v. 3, pp. 79-104. https://doi.org/10.14198/MEDCOM2012.3.06
  • Roses, Sergio; Gómez-Calderón, Bernardo (2015). "Credibilidad de los medios en Espaí±a: divergencias de percepción y caracterización de los escépticos". Profesional de la información, v. 24, n. 4, pp. 432-439. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2015.jul.10
  • Saad, Lydia (2023). Historically low faith in US institutions continues. Washington: Gallup. https://news.gallup.com/poll/508169/historically-low-faith-institutions-continues.aspx
  • Sádaba, Charo; Salaverría, Ramón (2023). "Combatir la desinformación con alfabetización mediática: análisis de las tendencias en la Unión Europea". Revista latina de comunicación social, v. 81. https://doi.org/10.4185/RLCS-2023-1552.
  • Salaverría, Ramón; Buslón, Natalia: López-Pan, Fernando; León, Bienvenido; López-Goí±i, Ignacio; Erviti, María-Carmen (2020). "Desinformación en tiempos de pandemia: tipología de los bulos sobre la Covid-19". Profesional de la información, v. 29, n. 3. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2020.may.15
  • Salaverría, Ramón; Martínez-Costa, María-Pilar (2023). "Digital journalism in Spain: Technological, sociopolitical and economic factors as drivers of media evolution". Journalism. Special issue: Digital news histories in Europe. https://doi.org/10.1177/14648849231170519
  • Sapienza, Emanuele (2021). Trust in public institutions. A conceptual framework and insights for improved governance programming. Oslo: United Nations Development Programme. https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/oslo_governance_centre/Trust-in-Public-Institutions-Policy-Brief_FINAL.pdf
  • Serrano-Puche, Javier (2017). "Credibilidad y confianza en los medios de comunicación: un panorama de la situación en España". En: González, Marta; Valderrama, Mónica (eds.). Discursos comunicativos persuasivos hoy, pp. 427-438. Madrid: Tecnos. ISBN: 978 9978 375 65 5
  • Serrano-Puche, Javier (2021). "Digital disinformation and emotions: exploring the social risks of affective polarization". International review of sociology, v. 31, n. 2, pp. 231-245. https://doi.org/10.1080/03906701.2021.1947953
  • Shaw, Eugene F. (1973). "Media credibility: Taking the measure of a measure". Journalism quarterly, v. 50, pp. 306-311. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769907305000213
  • Simmel, George (1987). Sociología, 1 Estudios sobre las formas de socialización. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. ISBN: 978 84 206 2479 2
  • Strömbäck, Jesper; Tsfati, Yari; Boomgaarden, Hajo; Damstra, Alyt; Lindgren, Elina; Vliegenthart, Rens; Lindholm, Torun (2020). "News media trust and its impact on media use: toward a framework for future research". Annals of the International Communication Association, v. 44, n. 2, pp. 139-156. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2020.1755338
  • Thorbjørnsrud, Kjersti; Figenschou, Tine U. (2022). "The alarmed citizen: fear, mistrust, and alternative media". Journalism practice, v. 16, n. 5, pp. 1018-1035. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2020.1825113
  • Tsfati, Yariv (2003). "Media skepticism and climate of opinion perception". International journal of public opinion research, v. 15, n. 1, pp. 65-82. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/15.1.65
  • Tsfati, Yariv; Ariely, Gal (2014). "Individual and contextual correlates of trust in media across 44 countries". Communication research, v. 41, n. 6, pp. 760-782. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650213485972
  • Uslaner, Eric M. (2002). The moral foundations of trust. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 978 0 511614934 https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511614934
  • Vaccari, Cristian; Chadwick, Andrew (2020). "Deepfakes and disinformation: exploring the impact of synthetic political video on deception, uncertainty, and trust in news". Social media + society, v. 6, n. 1. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120903408
  • Vanacker, Bastian; Belmas, Genele (2009). "Trust and the economics of news". Journal of mass media ethics, v. 24, n. 2-3, pp. 110-126. https://doi.org/10.1080/08900520902885277
  • Van-Aelst, Peter; Strömbäck, Jesper; Aalberg, Toril; Esser, Frank (2017). "Political communication in a high-choice media environment: a challenge for democracy?". Annals of the international communication association, v. 41, n. 1, pp. 3-27. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2017.1288551
  • Van-Dalen, Arjen (2021). "Rethinking journalist-politician relations in the age of populism: how outsider politicians delegitimize mainstream journalists". Journalism, v. 22, n. 11, pp. 2711-2728. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884919887822
  • Vara-Miguel, Alfonso (2018). "Confianza en noticias y fragmentación de mercado: el caso español". Comunicació: revista de recerca i d’anàlisi, v. 35, n. 1, pp. 95-113. https://doi.org/10.2436/20.3008.01.168
  • Vara-Miguel, Alfonso (2020). "Cross-national similarities and differences between legacy and digital-born news media audiences". Media and communication, v. 8, n. 2, pp. 16-27. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v8i2.2733
  • Vara-Miguel, Alfonso; Amoedo, Avelino; Moreno, Elsa; Negredo, Samuel; Kaufmann-Argueta, Jí¼rg (2022). Digital News Report Espaí±a. Pamplona: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Navarra. https://doi.org/10.15581/019.2022
  • Wang, Peng-Wei; Lu, Wei-Hsin; Ko, Nai-Ying; Chen,Yi-Lung; Li, Dian-Jeng; Chang, Yu-Ping; Yen, Cheng-Fang (2020). "COVID-19-related information sources and the relationship with confidence in people coping with COVID-19: Facebook survey study in Taiwan". Journal of medical internet research, v. 22, n. 6, e20021. https://doi.org/10.2196/20021
  • Westley, Bruce H.; Severin, Werner J. (1964). "Some correlates of media credibility". Journalism quarterly, v. 41, n. 1, pp. 325-335. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769906404100301
  • WHO, World Health Organization (2020). Rolling updates on coronavirus disease (Covid-19). 2 February. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200202-sitrep-13-ncov-v3.pdf
  • Wu, Tim (2016). The attention merchants. The epic scramble to get inside our heads. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN: 978 0 385352 01 7
  • Zimmermann, Fabian; Kohring, Matthias (2020). "Mistrust, disinforming news, and vote choice: a panel survey on the origins and consequences of believing disinformation in the 2017 German parliamentary election". Political communication, v. 37, n. 2, pp. 215-237. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2019.1686095
Fuente de los datos: Dialnet